The Shaduf
One of the oldest known tools used to raise water from a well, river or lake is the shaduf. This simple mechanism, used since pharaonic and classical times, consists of a bucket attached to a rope at the long end of a wooden pole. The pole rests on a fulcrum with a counterweight at the short end of the pole. When an operator pulls down the long end of the pole, he lowers the bucket into the source, and the counterweight hauls the full pail back up to the surface. Shadufs were introduced in Spain in the sixth century of our era, but not until the 14th century did they spread north to Germany. They also were adopted in Flanders (in present-day Belgium), where the 16th-century artist Pieter Bruegel the Elder depicted them in engravings of Flemish farms. Although they have largely disappeared from northern Europe, shadufs remain widespread throughout the Middle East, notably along the Nile.
Archimedes Screw
This classical device, named for the third-century BC Greek mathematician who first documented it, is composed of a wooden screw mounted inside an inclined cylinder. As the screw is turned, the spiral thread lifts the water into a sluice. Writing around 20 bc, the Greek historian Strabo described just such an Archimedes screw raising water from the Nile.
The Noria
Rotated by water-power, noria waterwheels, such as the Albolafia in Córdoba, turned first in Iran, where al-Muqaddasi described numerous norias along the Ahwaz River around the year 1000. Later, the noria became a mainstay of irrigation throughout al-Andalus. Still today in Syria, the city of Hama’s 20-meter-diameter (64') wheel, equipped with 120 compartments that empty into a stone aqueduct, lingers as a nostalgic landmark alongside the Orontes River. Writing in 1154, the geographer al-Idrisi marveled over an Andalusian noria twice that size that lifted water from the Tagus River to Talavera de la Reina near Toledo.
The Qanat
One of the most basic methods of controlling and moving water is the canal. When
constructed above ground level, a canal is called an aqueduct; when buried below
ground level, it may be called a
qanat
(in Iran), a
falaj
(in Oman),
foggara
(in the Sahara regions) or
khettara
(in Morocco). The oldest qanat may be one uncovered by the 2003 earthquake in
Bam, Iran, that dates back more than 2000 years.
The Saqiya
Originating in Persia around the same time as the qanat, the
saqiya
is an animal-powered mechanism of interlocking wooden gears, usually two, set at
right angles to each other. A donkey or mule is harnessed to a pole fixed to the
broad, horizontal wheel, which is set with posts generally less than a meter
tall—the teeth of that gear. These posts mesh at right angles with thick pins
set into a vertical waterwheel, the second gear. Attached around the
circumference of the vertical wheel are clay pots. When the animal walks in a
circle, rotating the horizontal wheel, it rotates the vertical wheel, which dips
the pots into the water one by one. As each pot reaches the top of its arc, its
water pours into a wooden sluice. According to historian Ibn Bassal, the saqiya
was the most widely used method of irrigation in the Muslim world by the 11th
century.
Water Raising Machines
by Dr. Monzur Ahmed
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Throughout history, the supply of water for drinking, domestic, irrigation and industrial purposes has always been a vital consideration in Muslirn countries. The problem has always consisted of finding effective means of raising water from its source. Early examples of water raising machines includethe shaduf (fig 1), saqiya (fig 2) and noria (fig 3). The shaduf was known in ancient times in Egypt and Assyria. It consists of a long beam supported between two pillars by a wooden horizontal bar. A counterweight was attached to the short arm of the beam. A bucket suspended by a rope or a pole was attached to the long arm of the beam. The bucket was lowered into the water by bearing down on the rope/pole and the counterweight raised the full bucket. The shaduf is still widespread in Egypt.
The saqiya is a animal powered machine. The central mechanism consists
of two gears- a large vertical cogwheel and a horizontal lantern
pinion-meshing at right angles. The vertical cogwheel is mounted over
the source of the water and drives another wheel carrying a chain of
earthenware pots ('potgarland') secured by rope. An animal- donkey, mule
or camel- is used to turn the horizontal lantern pinion. As the animal
walks in a circular path the potgarland wheel turns. The pots dip into
the water, raise it to the surface and discharge it into a tank. The
saqiya was known in Roman times. Almost certainly it was in use in
Arabia before the advent of Islam. The machine was probably transmitted
to Spain from Syria The noria is a water powered machine that is most suitable in areas where there are fast flowing streams whose courses are some distance below the surrounding fields. The wheels are mounted between piers which carry the bearings for the axle. The diameter of the largest wheel is about 20m and there are 120 compartments in the rim. The wheel is turned by the impact of water on paddles mounted on the rim. The compartments dip into the water and are carried to the top where they discharge into a head tank connected to an aqueduct. The noria was already in use in Roman times and was described by Vitruvius in 1 BC. References in the works of Arab geographers show that norias were in use throughout the Muslirn world. Although the machines are now rarely used, some fine examples can still be seen, notably on the River Orontes at Hama in Syria. At an early stage Muslim engineers were exploring new methods for increasing the effectiveness of water raising machines. Al-Jazari and Taqi al-Din both described water-raising machines that show an awareness of the need to develop machines with a greater output than these traditional ones. Al-Jazari was responsible for the design of five machines in the thirteenth century C.E. His first two machines were modifications of the shaduf. The machines used a flume-beam: instead of a pole, an open channel is connected to a scoop, which has its spout elongated into a flume. The scoop dips into the water and when the beam rises the water runs back through the channel and discharges into the irrigation system. The machines were animal powered as in the saqiya. Al-Jazari's third machine was a development of the saqiya in which water power replaced animal power. Flowing water turned a water wheel which via a system of perpendicular gears caused a chain of pots to raise the water. One such machine was located on the River Yazid in Damascus (13th century) and is thought to have supplied the needs of a nearby hospital. The fourth machine again used a flume-beamand was animal powered. The beam was moved up and down by an intricate mechanism involving gears and a crank. This is the first known instance of the use of a crank as part of a machine- the earliest appearance in Europe of a crank as part of a machine occured in the fifteenth century C.E. Al-Jazari's fifth machine, a water-driven pump was a more radical device. A water wheel turned a vertical cog wheel which in turn turned a horizontal wheel. The latter caused two opposing copper pistons to oscillate. The cylinders of the pistons were connected to suction and delivery pipes which were guarded by one-way clack valves (i.e. hinged at one end). The suction pipes drew water from a water sump down below and the delivery pipes discharged the water into the supply system about 12m above the installation. This pump is an early example of the double-acting principle (while one piston sucks the other delivers) and the conver sion of rotatory to reciprocating motion. |
Fig 1. Shaduf
Fig 2. The Saqiya
Fig 3. The Noria |
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Taqi al-Din describes a slightly modifred version of Al Jazari's fifth machine in his book on machines (l6th century). Even more remarkable is Taqi al-Din's six-cylinder 'monobloc' pump driven by water power (fig 4). The water wheel was attached to a long horizontal axle. The axle had six cams spaced along its length. Opposite each cam was a lever-arm, supported in the middle and pin-jointed at the other end to a vertical piston rod. The upper end of each piston rod carried a lead weight. The bottom of each piston cylinder had a clack valve. When the water wheel rotated, each lever arm was raised in succession by the cams, water was then drawn up by the piston through the valve. When the lever was released the lead weight ejected the water up through the delivery system . It is of note that Taqi al-Din's book which also includes a steam-driven spit antedates the famous book of machines, Le diverse et artificiose machine of Agostine Ramelli published in 1588 in Paris.
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Fig 4. A six cylinder 'monobloc' pump for raising water; |
Reference:
Ahmed Y al-Hassan and Donald R Hill (1986) Islamic Technology- an illustrated guide; Cambridge University Press; ch 2
This article originally appeared in Muslim Technologist, August 1989
